High affinity recombinant sea lamprey antibodies selected by a Yeast Surface Display platform

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a Yeast Surface Display (YSD) vector for expression of VLR proteins by yeast, wherein the vector includes nucleotide sequences encoding segments of yeast flocculation proteins Flo1p, such as the leader and C-terminal segments, a homologous recombinant cassette and a geneticin/kanamycin resistance gene. The vector can be used for expression of VLR that may be effective in diagnostic applications (e.g., protein chip, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry), immunoaffinity purification, and for engineering novel fusion proteins.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is filed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C.

371 and claims the priority of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2009/065852 filed on Nov. 25, 2009, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/118,922 filed on Dec. 1, 2008, the contents of all are incorporated by reference herein.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under Grant Number MCB-0614672 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to the field of immunology and, more particularly, the present invention relates to an expression vector for the display of lamprey VLR proteins on a yeast cell surface for selection of high affinity proteins for use in combinatorial libraries.

2. Description of the Related Art Technical Field

At least 10,000 antibodies (Abs) are commercially available for biomedical and biotechnology applications. Abs are used in various medical applications including in vivo diagnostics; as inhibitors of extracellular proteases; as antagonists of cellular receptors or soluble factors; as tissue-targeting vehicles that deliver linked toxic molecules, cytokines or enzymes; or as scavengers of toxic compounds (28). In 2007, the FDA approved 21 Ab-based biopharmaceuticals, mainly for treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases, approached annual sales of $20 billion (46). Other biotechnology applications for Abs include detection reagents in immunochemical assays such as ELISA, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, flow cytometry, as biosensors in chip technology and for separation of analytes.

The application of recombinant Abs, as recognition molecules has pitfalls because immunoglobulins (Igs) are large molecules consisting of light and heavy chains linked by disulfide bonds, which requires elaborate and expensive steps for recombinant expression. The complex architecture of the antigen-binding site, formed by six hypervariable loops, three from each chain, further complicates the manipulations required for generation of synthetic Ab libraries. In addition, subunits of Ab fragments often dissociate, or tend to aggregate when fused to effector domains. These technical limitations, as well as major patent restrictions, have driven an intensive search for alternatives to Abs in the form of synthetic binding scaffolds such as ankyrin repeats, fibronectins, lipocalins, protein A, src homology domains and thioredoxin (27, 28). But none of these are natural antigen receptors.

Jawed vertebrates, such as sharks, birds, and mammals, mount a robust humoral response on immune stimulation with foreign antigens. Typically, naïve B lymphocytes bind antigens with low affinity via surface IgM. Subsequently, antibody genes undergo somatic hypermutation, and those clones with highest affinity are selected to produce effective immune responses and form the memory pool (1, 2). Lamprey and hagfish are jawless fish, representatives of the ancestral vertebrate taxon, which evolved rearranging antigen receptors convergently with the jawed vertebrates. But instead of the Ig superfamily domains found in Ig-based antibodies and T cell receptors (TCRs), the variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) of lamprey and hagfish consist of highly diverse leucine-rich repeat (LRR) modules (3, 6). LRRs are ancient protein modules that are prevalent building blocks of animal and plant pattern recognition molecules, such as Toll and Toll-like receptors, nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), LRRs, and plant disease-resistance genes, which are triggered by an exceptionally diverse array of ligands (7). Interestingly, however, VLRs are not related to these pattern recognition molecules, but instead are closely related to the vertebrate-specific von Willebrand factor receptor GpIbα, a member of the family of platelet LRR-containing hemostatic receptors (6). Jawless vertebrates thus evolved their rearranging antigen receptors from LRR scaffolds, elaborating the only known adaptive immune system not based on Ig or on TCR (6).

However, little is known about the antigen-binding properties of VLRs, or about how the naïve VLR repertoire develops into a protective shield in immune-stimulated animals. Thus it would be advantageous to use the natural antigen antigen-binding properties of VLRs to develop systems and methods for diagnostic applications, immunoaffinity purification, and engineering novel fusion proteins that do not include the shortcomings of Ig antibodies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the use of the only natural adaptive immune system that is not based on Igs and found in lamprey and hagfish that are jawless vertebrates that produce VLRs. VLRs have great biotechnological potential in diagnostic applications (e.g., protein chip, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry), for immunoaffinity purification, and for engineering novel fusion proteins. Thus, the present invention provides for the production of high affinity VLR for diverse ligands having dissociation constants (K_(D)) in the micrometers and nanometer

In one aspect, the present invention relates to a Yeast Surface Display (YSD) vector for expression of a VLR protein comprising:

-   -   a) a nucleotide sequence encoding for the VLR protein;     -   b) nucleotide sequences encoding the leader and C-terminal of         yeast flocculation protein Flo1p or segments having         substantially the same activity or function thereof; and     -   c) a homologous recombination cassette consisting of two direct         repeats separated by a linker with a restriction site for         plasmid linearization.

A further improvement in the YSD vector is the inclusion of a geneticin/kanamycin resistance gene and using a growth medium that includes yeast peptone and sugar, supplemented with G418 for plasmid selection.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a Yeast Surface Display (YSD) vector for expression of a VLR protein comprising:

-   -   a) a nucleotide sequence encoding for the VLR protein;     -   b) nucleotide sequences encoding the leader and C-terminal of         yeast flocculation protein Flo1p comprising of SEQ ID NOs.: 6         and 7 respectively or sequences having at least 90% homology and         having substantially the same activity or function; and a         homologous recombination cassette consisting of two direct         repeats separated by a linker.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a high-throughput platform for selection of recombinant antigen-binding VLR proteins, the system comprising:

-   -   a) providing yeast strains of Saccharomyce cerevisiae and     -   b) transfecting the yeast with an expression vector comprising:         -   a nucleotide sequence encoding for at least one VLR protein;         -   nucleotide sequences encoding for both the leader and             C-terminal of yeast flocculation protein Flo1p; and a             homologous recombination cassette consisting of two direct             repeats separated by a linker with a restriction site for             plasmid linearization; and     -   c) culturing the yeast for expression and displaying of the VLR         proteins on the surface of the yeast.

Another aspect relates to the production of VLR proteins having high affinity for an antigen of choice, the method comprising:

-   -   a) immunizing a Lamprey with the antigen and collecting plasma         containing the VLR proteins formed in response to the antigen;     -   b) determining nucleotide sequence encoding such VLR proteins;     -   c) preparing an expression vector comprising:         -   i. a nucleotide sequence encoding for the VLR protein;         -   ii. nucleotide sequences encoding for both the leader and             C-terminal of yeast flocculation protein Flo1p; and a             homologous recombination cassette consisting of two direct             repeats separated by a linker with a restriction site for             plasmid linearization;     -   d) transfecting a yeast strain;     -   e) culturing the yeast for expression and displaying of the VLR         proteins on the surface of the yeast; and     -   f) measuring the binding affinity.

The method for determining binding affinity may further include subjecting such nucleotide sequence encoding the VLR protein to mutagenesis and repeat until affinity increases for antigen of choice.

Other aspects and advantages of the invention will be more fully apparent from the ensuing disclosure and appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows in A the assembly of lamprey VLRs, compared with the V(D)J-rearrangement of mammalian Abs. VLR genes are assembled by sequential insertion of LRR cassettes from flanking arrays into the incomplete germline gene, via gene conversion. Ab genes are assembled via RAG-mediated joining of Ig gene fragments. Mature antigen receptors in both cases are expressed on the surface of lymphocytes, and can be secreted to the plasma. A VLR comprises a set of highly diverse LRR modules capped by disulfide-bonded N-terminal and C-terminal LRR modules (LRRNT, LRRCT). The 25-residue LRR1 is followed by up to nine 24-residue LRRVs, and a 16-residue LRR, the connecting peptide (CP). The invariant portions of VLRs include a secretion peptide (SP) and an 81-residue C-terminus that contains a threonine/proline-rich stalk and a GPI surface anchorage motif. B. Alignment of consensus LRR sequences from animal, yeast and bacterial proteins. (Lamprey SEQ ID NO: 56, Toll Like (SEQ ID NO: 57; CD42b SEQ ID NO: 58; RI SEQ ID NO: 59; Yeast SEQ ID NO: 60; Bacterial SEQ ID NO: 61) RI—ribonuclease inhibitor; x—any residue; φ—hydrophobic residue (modified from 31). C. Variability plots for the lamprey LRRV module. The mean of pairwise differences in residues per site, calculated for modules from 517 unique VLR sequences. Consensus residues are indicated; variability values: 0=single residue in that position, 1=all 20 residues equally represented; *—positively selected residue predicted on the β-strand (SEQ ID NO 62).

FIG. 2. A. Plasma VLR response of adult lamprey repeatedly immunized with hen egg lysozyme (HEL) and sampled at the indicated time points. ELISA assay with a mAb against the conserved VLR stalk used for detection. B. Yeast surface display of HEL-binder clone VLRB.2D. FACS analysis using 100 nM biotinylated HEL and R-phycoerythrin-conjugated streptavidin (SA-PE), and rat anti-HA mAb to detect the VLR C-terminal hemagglutinin tag and anti-rat Alexa 488 labeled Abs. C. VLRB.2D and two of its in vitro mutagenized versions, 2DMut.12 and 2DMut.15, labeled with HEL at the indicated concentrations. D. Alignment of VLRB.2D (SEQ ID No: 22) and six clones selected following one round of mutagenesis. Identical residues are marked by dots (2dMutt.1 SEQ ID NO: 28; 2DMUt.11 SEQ ID NO: 29; 2DMut.12 SEQ ID NO.: 30; 2DMut.13 SEQ ID NO: 31; 2DMut. 14 SEQ ID No 32; 2dMut. 15 SEQ ID NO: 33). The predicted hypervariable hairpin loop region in LRRCT is shaded yellow (Rogozin et al., 2007). E. An anti-RPE VLR clone labeled with the indicated concentrations R-phycoerythrin (R-PE).

FIG. 3 shows equilibrium binding of wild-type and mutant VLRB.2D to HEL. SPR sensograms for the interaction of (A) wild-type VLRB.2D (117.0, 87.5, 58.5, 43.8, 35.1, 21.9, 10.9 μM) and (B) mutant 2DMut.12 (30.8, 24.5, 15.4, 7.5, 3.8, 1.9, 1.0 μM) with immobilized HEL after correction for non-specific binding. Inset plots show non-linear steady-state affinity analysis of the equilibrium binding data.

FIG. 4. A. The pYSD2 vector for yeast surface display of VLRs by N-terminal fusion to the yeast Flo1p C-terminus, using the authentic secretion leader, controlled by the tightly regulated GAL1 promoter. The vector replicates in bacteria and yeast (ColE1, CEN6/ARS4), selected by kanamycin/geneticin resistance. B. VLRs are cloned directionally between two different SfiI sites. Detection and processing tags, and location of primers indicated (YSD.F, YSD.R) (SEQ ID NO.: 23) amino acid coding (SEQ ID NO: 41). C. The homologous recombination cassette consists of two 49-bp direct repeats, separated by a linker with a PmeI restriction site for plasmid linearization. HR.F, HR.R—primers for PCR across of the whole plasmid (SEQ ID NO.: 24 and SEQ ID NO.: 55).

FIG. 5 shows antigen binding by VLRB antibodies. (A) Yeast surface display of VLR fused to the Flo1p anchor. The HA-tag served for VLR detection via Alexa 488-conjugated antibodies. Biotinylated ligands were detected via SAPE. (B) Enrichment of HEL-binding VLRB clones from HEL-immunized larval library. From left to right: the unsorted library, enrichment by antibiotin magnetic microbeads (with MACS), sorting of the double-positive cells in the gate, output of the first sort, output of the second sort, and the resulting clones. (C). Comparison of naïve and immune YSD libraries enriched for binders of β-gal, CTB, and B-trisaccharide. A representative clone for each antigen is shown.

FIG. 6 shows the affinity maturation in vitro of VLRB antibodies. (A) The sequence of VLRB.HEL.2D (SEQ ID NO: 34) aligned with 5 mutant clones selected after in vitro random mutagenesis (2DMut.11 SEQ ID NO. 35; 2DMut.12 SEQ ID NO: 36; 2DMut.13 SEQ ID NO: 37; 2DMut.14 SEQ ID NO: 38; 2DMut.15 SEQ ID NO: 39). Dots indicate identity to the top sequence. The LRRCT hypervariable loop region is shaded yellow. (B) Sorting LRRCT loop-swapped mutants. The second MACS output was labeled with 1 nM HEL, and a representative mutant clone VLRB.CTMut.5 was stained with HEL as indicated. (C) The sequence of VLRB.HEL.1 (SEQ ID NO: 40) aligned with mutant clone VLRB.CTMut.5 (SEQ ID NO.: 25). The swapped LRRCT region is delineated by PCR primers (forward, reverse). (D) SPR sensogram of the interaction between immobilized NeutrAvidin-biotin-VLRB.CTMut.5 with 2-fold HEL serial dilutions (7.66-0.00299 nM). K_(D)=119 pM. RU, resonance units.

FIG. 7 show monoclonal VLRA antibodies cloned from a HEL-immunized adult lamprey. (A) Sorting anti-HEL VLRA. The second MACS output was labeled with 20 nM HEL. Clones were sorted using gates R2-R4. (B) Protein sequence alignment of 13 anti-HEL VLRA; only residues 3-246 are shown (R2.1 SEQ ID NO.: 26; R5.1 Seq ID No: 42; R5.2 SEQ ID NO: 43; R5.6 SEQ ID NO: 44; R2.6 SEQ ID NO: 45; R3.9 SEQ ID NO: 46; R4.7 SEQ ID NO 47; R4.10 SEQ ID NO: 48; R4.6 SEQ ID NO: 49; R4.8 SEQ ID NO: 50; R3.1 SEQ ID NO: 51; R4.3 SEQ ID NO: 52; R4.9 SEQ ID NO: 53; Genomic SEQ ID NO: 54). Tiled below: germline VLRA gene portions (boxes 1 and 12) and the corresponding genomic LRR cassettes (boxes 2-11; 3a and 3b alternative cassettes). Dots indicate identity to the top sequence. (C) VLRA YSD antigen titrations. Normalized mean fluorescence intensity of biotin-HEL-SAPE plotted against 2-fold serial HEL dilutions (for R2.1, 10-0.025 nM; for R2.6, 100-0.25 nM; for R4.9, 200-0.5 nM). Bars indicate SEs of triplicate samples. (D) Neighbor-joining tree of the VLRA nucleotide sequences. The corresponding K_(D) values calculated by YSD antigen titration are given in parentheses.

FIG. 8 shows assembly of lamprey germline VLR genes into mature VLRs. The germline genes are nonfunctional, consisting only of the invariant portions: N-terminal signal peptide (SP), a complete or 3′-truncated portion of the LRRNT, 1 or 2 noncoding intervening sequences, 1 or 2 truncated portions of the LRRCT, and a stalk-like C terminus that includes a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchorage motif, which tethers the VLR to the lymphocyte surface. The diversity regions of mature VLR genes consist of LRRNT of 27-34 residues, one 25-residue LRR (LRR1), up to nine 24-residue LRRs (LRRVs, the terminal one designated LRRVe), one 16-residue truncated LRR designated CP, and 48-63 residue LRRCT. The mature VLR genes are assembled by sequential insertion of LRR-encoding cassettes, from arrays of the hundreds of cassettes flanking each gene (not shown), into the incomplete germline genes via a gene conversion-like process. The germline VLR gene portions of LRRNT and LRRCT serve as docking sites for the incoming LRR cassettes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the present invention there may be employed conventional molecular biology, microbiology, and recombinant DNA techniques within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature and the contents hereby incorporated by reference herein. See, e.g., Maniatis, Fritsch & Sambrook, “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (1982); “DNA Cloning: A Practical Approach,” Volumes I and II (D. N. Glover ed. 1985); “Oligonucleotide Synthesis” (M. J. Gait ed. 1984); “Nucleic Acid Hybridization” (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. (1985)); “Transcription and Translation” (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. (1984)); “Animal Cell Culture” (R. I. Freshney, ed. (1986)); “Immobilized Cells And Enzymes” (IRL Press, (1986)); B. Perbal, “A Practical Guide To Molecular Cloning” (1984).

As used herein, the term “affinity maturation” shall refer to a process of successive mutation and selection by which antibodies such as VLRA and/or VLRB of higher affinity are selected.

As used herein, the term “ligand” shall refer to a molecule that is bound specifically by a particular protein.

As used herein, the term “antigen” shall refer to a ligand that is bound specifically by an antibody of the present invention.

As used herein, the term “Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting” or “flow cytometry” shall refer to a method for sorting cell populations on the basis of differential fluorescent labeling.

As used herein the term “DNA coding sequence” shall refer to a double-stranded DNA sequence which is transcribed and translated into a polypeptide in vivo when placed under the control of appropriate regulatory sequences. The boundaries of the coding sequence are determined by a start codon at the 5′ (amino) terminus and a translation stop codon at the 3′ (carboxyl) terminus. A coding sequence can include, but is not limited to, prokaryotic sequences, cDNA from eukaryotic mRNA, genomic DNA sequences from eukaryotic (e.g., mammalian) DNA, and even synthetic DNA sequences. A polyadenylation signal and transcription termination sequence will usually be located 3′ to the coding sequence.

As used herein, the terms “polypeptide,” “protein” and “peptide” are used interchangeably to denote a sequence polymer of at least two amino acids covalently linked by an amide bond, regardless of length or post-translational modification (e.g., glycosylation, phosphorylation, lipidation, myristilation, ubiquitination, etc.). D- and L-amino acids, and mixtures of D- and L-amino acids are also included.

As used herein, the term “substantially the same activity or function,” when used in reference to a flo1p leader or C-terminal protein so modified, means that the polypeptide retains most, all or more of the activity associated with the unmodified polypeptide, as described herein or known in the art.

Modified flo1p leader or C-terminal proteins having substantially the same activity or function, included herein can be identified through a routine functional assay. For example, by using antibody binding assays or co-receptor binding assays.

As used herein, the terms “homology” or “homologous,” used in reference to polypeptides, refers to amino acid sequence similarity between two polypeptides. When an amino acid position in both of the polypeptides is occupied by identical amino acids, they are homologous at that position. Thus, by “substantially homologous” means an amino acid sequence that is largely, but not entirely, homologous, and which retains most or all of the activity as the sequence to which it is homologous.

As the modified flo1p leader or C-terminal protein will retain activity or function associated with unmodified flo1p leader or C-terminal protein, modified flo1p leader or C-terminal protein polypeptides will generally have an amino acid sequence “substantially identical” or “substantially homologous” with the amino acid sequence of the unmodified polypeptide. As used herein, the term “substantially identical” or “substantially homologous,” when used in reference to a polypeptide sequence, means that a sequence of the polypeptide is at least 70%, alternatively 85%, more likely 90%, and most likely 95% homology to a reference polypeptide. For polypeptides, the length of comparison to obtain the above-described percent homologies between sequences will generally be at least 25 amino acids or alternatively at least 50 amino acids, more likely at least 100 amino acids, and most likely 200 amino acids or more.

As set forth herein, substantially identical or homologous polypeptides include additions, truncations, internal deletions or insertions, conservative and non-conservative substitutions, or other modifications located at positions of the amino acid sequence which do not destroy the function of the flo1p leader or C-terminal protein (as determined by functional assays, e.g., as described herein). A particular example of a substitution is where one or more amino acid is replaced by another, chemically or biologically similar residue. As used herein, the term “conservative substitution” refers to a substitution of one residue with a chemically or biologically similar residue. Examples of conservative substitutions include the replacement of a hydrophobic residue, such as isoleucine, valine, leucine, or methionine for another, the replacement of a polar residue for another, such as the substitution of arginine for lysine, glutamic for aspartic acids, or glutamine for asparagine, and the like. Those of skill in the art will recognize the numerous amino acids that can be modified or substituted with other chemically similar residues without substantially altering activity.

As used herein, the terms “nucleic acid,” “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” and “primer” are used interchangeably to refer to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic (RNA), either double- or single-stranded, linear or circular. RNA can be unspliced or spliced mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, or antisense RNAi. DNA can be complementary DNA (cDNA), genomic DNA, or an antisense. Specifically included are nucleotide analogues and derivatives, such as those that are resistant to nuclease degradation, which can function to encode the invention flo1p leader and/or C-terminal proteins. Nuclease resistant oligonucleotides and polynucleotides are particularly useful for the present nucleic acid vaccines described herein.

As used herein the terms “transcriptional and translational control sequences” shall refer to DNA regulatory sequences, such as promoters, enhancers, polyadenylation signals, terminators, and the like, that provide for the expression of a coding sequence in a host cell.

As used herein the terms “promoter sequence” shall refer to a DNA regulatory region capable of binding RNA polymerase in a cell and initiating transcription of a downstream (3′ direction) coding sequence. For purposes of defining the present invention, the promoter sequence is bounded at its 3′ terminus by the transcription initiation site and extends upstream (5′ direction) to include the minimum number of bases or elements necessary to initiate transcription at levels detectable above background. Within the promoter sequence will be found a transcription initiation site (conveniently defined by mapping with nuclease S1), as well as protein binding domains (consensus sequences) responsible for the binding of RNA polymerase. Eukaryotic promoters will often, but not always, contain “TATA” boxes and “CAT” boxes. Prokaryotic promoters contain Shine-Dalgarno sequences in addition to the −10 and −35 consensus sequences.

As used herein the “primer” shall refer to an oligonucleotide, whether occurring naturally as in a purified restriction digest or produced synthetically, which is capable of acting as a point of initiation of synthesis when placed under conditions in which synthesis of a primer extension product, which is complementary to a nucleic acid strand, is induced, i.e., in the presence of nucleotides and an inducing agent such as a DNA polymerase and at a suitable temperature and pH. The primer may be either single-stranded or double-stranded and must be sufficiently long to prime the synthesis of the desired extension product in the presence of the inducing agent. The exact length of the primer will depend upon many factors, including temperature, the source of primer and the method used. For example, for diagnostic applications, depending on the complexity of the target sequence, the oligonucleotide primer typically contains 15-25 or more nucleotides, although it may contain fewer nucleotides.

The primers herein are selected to be “substantially” complementary to different strands of a particular target DNA sequence. This means that the primers must be sufficiently complementary to hybridize with their respective strands. Therefore, the primer sequence need not reflect the exact sequence of the template. For example, a non-complementary nucleotide fragment may be attached to the 5′ end of the primer, with the remainder of the primer sequence being complementary to the strand. Alternatively, non-complementary bases or longer sequences can be interspersed into the primer, provided that the primer sequence has sufficient complementarity with the sequence or hybridize therewith and thereby form the template for the synthesis of the extension product.

A cell has been “transformed” by exogenous or heterologous DNA when such DNA has been introduced inside the cell. The transforming DNA may or may not be integrated (covalently linked) into the genome of the cell. In prokaryotes, yeast, and mammalian cells for example, the transforming DNA may be maintained on an episomal element such as a plasmid. With respect to eukaryotic cells, a stably transformed cell is one in which the transforming DNA has become integrated into a chromosome so that it is inherited by daughter cells through chromosome replication. This stability is demonstrated by the ability of the eukaryotic cell to establish cell lines or clones comprised of a population of daughter cells containing the transforming DNA. A “clone” is a population of cells derived from a single cell or common ancestor by mitosis. A “cell line” is a clone of a primary cell that is capable of stable growth in vitro for many generations.

For propagation or expression in cells, polynucleotides described herein can be inserted into a vector of the present invention. The term “vector” refers to a plasmid, virus, or other vehicle known in the art that can be manipulated by insertion or incorporation of a nucleic acid. Such vectors can be used for genetic manipulation (i.e., “cloning vectors”) or can be used to transcribe or translate the inserted polynucleotide (i.e., “expression vectors”). A vector generally contains at least an origin of replication for propagation in a cell and a promoter. Control elements, including promoters present within an expression vector, are included to facilitate proper transcription and translation (e.g., splicing signal for introns, maintenance of the correct reading frame of the gene to permit in-frame translation of mRNA and stop codons). In vivo or in vitro expression of the polynucleotides described herein can be conferred by a promoter operably linked to the nucleic acid.

As used herein, the term “reporter gene” shall refer to a coding sequence attached to heterologous promoter or enhancer elements and whose product is easily and quantifiably assayed when the construct is introduced into tissues or cells.

As stated above, jawless fish are members of the ancestral vertebrate taxon and the only remaining sister group of jawed vertebrates such as shark, birds and mammals. Like all other vertebrates, lamprey and hagfish have circulating lymphocytes equipped with highly diverse cell surface and secreted antigen receptors (FIG. 1A). Instead of Ig domains however, VLRs consist of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs)—structural modules that form a horseshoe-shaped fold with an interior parallel β-sheet and an exterior array of helices (10). The LRR modules are ancient motifs found in over 2,000 proteins from viruses, bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes (FIG. 1B), including many of the cardinal innate microbial recognition proteins of animals and plants, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the cytoplasmic nucleotide-binding site (NBS)-LRR proteins and the LRR-containing plant Disease Resistance genes (7).

VLRs are generated in lymphocytes by a process of DNA recombination (FIG. 1A). Each VLR is assembled from multiple LRR-encoding cassettes, selected from an array of several hundred cassettes that flank the germline VLR gene. The selected cassettes are sequentially incorporated into the germline gene framework by gene conversion, to form a functional mature VLR with a unique diversity region. The diversity region of VLRs consists of a set of LRR modules, each with a highly variable amino acid sequence: a 27-31 residue N-terminal LRR (LRRNT), one 25-residue LRR (LRR1), up to nine 24-residue LRRs (LRRVs), one 16-residue truncated LRR designated connecting peptide (CP) and a 48-63 residue C-terminal LRR (LRRCT). The LRRNT and LRRCT are stabilized by two sets of intramodular disulfide bonds and cap both ends of the solenoid fold of the diversity region.

The assembly of VLRs by iterated cassette insertions, with frequent recombination events within the boundaries of the LRR modules, generates a vast repertoire of receptors estimated at over 10¹⁴ unique VLRs, which is sufficiently diverse to recognize molecular determinants of most, if not all, potential pathogens (5, 6). The most diverse LRR module is the 24-residue LRRV, which is a mosaic of conserved scaffold residues and highly variable sites, similar to most types of LRR modules from animals, plants, yeast and bacteria (FIGS. 1 B and C). The LRRVs consist of 11 conserved residues that are interspersed with hypervariable sites, some of which are positively selected sites located on the predicted solvent exposed β-strand that forms the concave surface of the VLR. The conserved residues form the hydrophobic core of the LRR module, whereas the canonical structure of the LRR is unaffected by physiochemical properties of residues in the hypervariable sites, and these may account for much of the diversity in VLR ligand binding sites (5).

The LRRNT and LRRCT modules, which cap both sides of the horseshoe-shaped solenoid fold, are also highly diverse in sequence. In the LRRCT, most of the diversity maps to a predicted 5-14 residue hairpin loop located between the α-helix and the first β-strand of the module. This distinctive loop is absent from the LRRCT of other animal LRR-containing proteins, except for the platelet glycoprotein receptor GPIbα, which has a 17-residue insert in its LRRCT (6). Interestingly, the crystal structure of human GPIbα in complex with the vWA domain of von Willebrand factor, showed the LRRCT insert forming an extended hairpin that projects across the concave surface in contact with the vWF (38). The highly variable loops in LRRCT of the VLRs may therefore similarly interact with antigens, regulating size and affinity of ligands accommodated by the concave surface.

The LRR-containing innate immune receptors of vertebrates are triggered by a remarkably diverse array of ligands. A short list of TLR ligands includes lipopeptide, lipoteichoic acid, mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan, neisserial porins, bacterial tripalmitoylated and mycoplasmal diacylated lipoproteins, lipopolysaccharide, peptidoglycan, bacterial flagellin, single-stranded and double-stranded RNA, unmethylated CpG-DNA motifs, heme motifs, pathogen and host derived proteins and oligosaccharides derived from heperan sulfate and hyaluronic acid (42, 34, 36, 40, 45, 44). The prevalence of LRRs in pattern recognition receptors of both plants and animals underscores their extraordinary competence for microbial recognition (7).

The VLRs were only recently discovered (3) but there is already solid evidence for antigen recognition by VLRs from immunized lamprey. Within several weeks after intraperitoneal injection of Bacillus anthracis spore coats, the lamprey plasma contained VLRs that reacted specifically with the anthrax spores, and with the BclA glycoprotein component of the spore, which is the major antigenic determinant in mice (5). Lamprey larvae and adults were immunized with hen egg lysozyme (HEL), which is commonly used in structural studies of the antigen-binding properties of jawed vertebrate Abs (13). Within four months the lamprey produced a high titer anti-HEL VLR response in plasma (FIG. 2A). Recently it was reported that lamprey immunized with human blood group O erythrocytes, produced VLRs that specifically recognized the H-trisaccharide antigen (8). Also secreted recombinant VLRs were produced in the cell line HEK-293T, which were cloned from lamprey immunized with the anthrax spore coat. Of 212 VLR transfectants that were assayed for antigen recognition, 14 were identified as positive for BclA, seven of which could discriminate between the C-terminal BclA domain of B. anthracis and that of B. cereus, which differ by only 14 of 134 residues (11). The nucleotide sequences of these VLRs were closely related and, as predicted, the few variable positions mapped to the β-sheet at the VLR concave surface, and to the predicted hairpin loop region in LRRCT. The secreted anti-BclA VLRs were oligomeric, comprising four or five disulfide-linked dimeric subunits, somewhat akin to vertebrate IgM antibodies. They were extremely stable, retaining antigen-binding activity after elution from a BclA affinity column at pH>11 and after storage for one year in the refrigerator, one month at room temperature or 36 h at 56° C. Remarkably, one of these VLRs agglutinated anthrax spores 1,000-fold more efficiently than an equivalent amount of a mouse monoclonal antibody, demonstrating its high avidity for the antigen.

These preliminary studies show an adaptive immune response mediated by non-Ig receptors, and pave the way to biotechnological applications of the VLRs, which may turn to be excellent protein scaffolds for molecular recognition (27, 43). VLRs can be used for diagnostic applications (e.g., protein chip, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays), for immunoaffinity purification and for the creation of novel fusion proteins. In addition, lamprey VLRs can provide a rich source of reagents that recognize mammalian antigens invisible to Ig-based Abs due to self-tolerance. The fact that VLRs are modular single-chain polypeptides makes them amenable to molecular engineering, and the presence of usually two or three hypervariable solvent-exposed sites per module should facilitate targeting of these residues by random mutagenesis in vitro to increase affinity or alter specificity. However, in order to fully explore the potential of VLRs as novel binding proteins, an expression platform is necessary to screen VLR libraries that are orders of magnitude larger than is possible with the HEK-293T system (11).

There are 2 types of VLR genes (4, 6), VLRA and VLRB, expressed by mutually exclusive lymphocyte populations (8). To form mature functional receptors, germline VLR genes undergo DNA recombination, whereby each VLR is assembled from multiple LRR-encoding cassettes selected from arrays of several hundred cassettes flanking each VLR gene. Mature VLRs consist of N-terminal leaders and C-terminal stalk-like cell surface-anchoring domains encoded by the germline VLR genes. Each VLR has a unique diversity region. Only small amino- and carboxy-terminal portions of the diversity regions are contributed by the germline genes (FIG. 8); these serve as docking sites for the sequential incorporation of LRR cassettes via a gene conversion-like process (6, 9).

The diversity regions in VLRA and VLRB consist of sets of LRR modules, each with a highly variable sequence: a 27- to 34-residue N-terminal LRR (LRRNT), one 25-residue LRR (LRR1), up to nine 24-residue LRRs (LRRVs; the terminal one designated LRRVe), one 16-residue truncated LRR designated the connecting peptide (CP), and a 48- to 63-residue C-terminal LRR (LRRCT). The LRRNT and LRRCT are stabilized by 2 sets of intramodular disulfide bonds that serve to cap both ends of the curved, solenoid-shaped diversity region (10). The assembly of VLRs by iterated cassette insertions, with frequent recombination events within boundaries of the LRR modules, generates a vast repertoire of receptors estimated at more than 10¹⁴ unique VLRs, of comparable magnitude to mammalian antibodies and TCRs (5, 6). Thus, VLRs may be excellent single-chain alternatives to Ig-based antibodies for biotechnology applications, because both antigen receptors were optimized over hundreds of millions of years of evolution.

Recent evidence indicates antigen recognition by plasma VLRB from immunized lamprey. Within 4-8 weeks after i.p. injection of Bacillus anthracis spores, the lamprey plasma contained VLRB antibodies that reacted specifically with the spores and with their BclA glycoprotein component (5, 11). Recombinant VLRBs from anthrax-immunized larvae were cloned and expressed in a mammalian cell line. Some of these could discriminate between the C-terminal domain of BclA of B. anthracis and B. cereus, which differ by only 14 of 134 residues, indicating the high specificity that VLRs can achieve. Both plasma VLRB and the recombinant antianthrax antibodies formed multimers, comprising 4 or 5 disulfide-linked dimeric subunits, which avidly bound BclA. But monomeric forms of the antianthrax VLRB were weak BclA binders, indicating that high-avidity binding requires oligomerization (11).

The present invention relates to the antigen-binding properties of lamprey VLRA and VLRB antibodies obtained from large VLR yeast surface display (YSD) libraries, which were constructed from antigen-stimulated and naïve animals and using the novel vector of the present invention. This powerful high-throughput platform enabled the isolation of monoclonal VLRs that specifically bind proteins and carbohydrates with affinities ranging from micromolar to subnanomolar. Also in vitro affinity maturation of VLRB antibodies was demonstrated with up to a 1,300-fold improvement in antigen-binding properties.

Notably, for high-throughput cloning of antigen-binding VLRs the E. coli-based phage display system (41) was initially used. However, this system was unsuccessful, as nearly all the putative antigen-binders were subsequently found to be completely non-specific. This lack of specificity (“stickiness”) can be attributed to the inability of most VLRs to fold properly in the reducing environment of E. coli cytoplasm, which may prevent formation of disulfide bonds in the capping modules, resulting in misfolding and aggregation of VLRs. Nonetheless, a single true antigen-binding clone, VLRB.2D, was identified which was found to recognize HEL with a dissociation constant (K_(D)) of 20 μM, as measured by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) (FIG. 3A).

To overcome the shortcomings of the E. coli-based phage display system, yeast surface display (YSD) was tested for the VLR proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. YSD is a eukaryotic expression platform with an efficient secretory oxidative protein folding machinery and glycosylation pathway, which is amenable to high-throughput screens. The YSD vector pCTCON2 and yeast strains were initially used. The pCTCON2 vector was created for expression of various native and engineered Ig-containing proteins as well as other synthetic ligand-binding protein scaffolds. However, upon attempting to sort antigen-binding VLRs using a fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACSort, BD Biosciences), irreproducible results were repeatedly encountered. Sorted populations did not enrich in spite of being selected from distinct populations of seemingly high-level antigen binders. It seemed that unstable phenotypes were being enriched instead of stable genotypes.

To overcome this difficulty, a custom tailored YSD vector was constructed for VLR expression (FIG. 4A), based on N-terminal fusion to the yeast flocculation protein Flo1p (16). The Flo1p is 1537 amino acids long, (SEQ ID NO.: 3) with a 24-residue leader (SEQ ID NO.: 4), then residues 1000-1081 feature a mannose-binding lectin-like domain and 18 flocculin repeats, which are important for yeast flocculation. Residues 1085-1537 (SEQ ID NO.: 5) encode a predicted stalk-like structure and a C-terminal GPI cell surface anchorage motif. Portions of the Flo1p C-terminus were previously shown to improve yeast surface expression of a test hemagglutinin (HA) tag (32).

As such, the novel vector of the present invention includes the Flo1p leader connected via a short linker to the cloning sites region, followed by a set of detection and processing tags and then the C-terminal Flo1p stalk and anchor (FIG. 4B). The vector includes a geneticin/kanamycin resistance gene for selection both in yeast and E. coli, instead of the TRP1 gene in pCTCON2 used to complement tryptophan deficiency in the yeast host. The expensive and labor intensive preparation of defined selective synthetic culture media has now been replaced with a simple formula of rich yeast peptone and sugar, supplemented with 50-100 μg/ml G418 for plasmid selection.

The new vector was tested and a remarkable improvement in the display of Flo1p-anchored VLRs was evident compared with pCTCON2. VLR displaying cells now appeared in a narrow and sharp flow cytometry profile, with clearly distinct ligand-binding populations (FIGS. 2 B, C and D). The last innovation in the novel vector of the present invention is a cassette for intra-plasmid homologous recombination (FIG. 4C). To take advantage of the high efficiency of yeast transformation with linear DNA, a cassette was created in the pYSD2 consisting of two 49-bp direct repeats, separated by an 8-bp recognition site for the PmeI endonuclease. The linearized plasmid is circularized in vivo by homologous recombination between the two direct repeats, leaving a single repeat in the recombined pYSD2 plasmid.

The present invention discloses a powerful new system for engineering antibody affinity and specificity, by constructing a microbial analog of the mammalian immune system's B cell repertoire. VLR were displayed on the surface of yeast cells by genetic fusion with Flop1p segments, that being the C-terminal and leader segments. After mutation, variants were selected on the basis of improved binding characteristics with fluorescently labeled targets.

EXAMPLES

Methods and Materials

Antigens: 13-gal (Calbiochem), CTB (Invitrogen), HEL (Sigma), RPE (Pierce), and blood group antigen type A (tri)-PAA-biotin and type B (tri)-PAA-biotin (Glycotech). Proteins were biotinylated with an EZ-Link NHS-PEO4 biotinylation kit (Pierce) a level of 1-3 mols of biotin per mol of antigen.

Lamprey Immunization. Metamorphosed lamprey, 20-25 cm long, were purchased from Acme Lamprey Co. Five animals were sedated by immersion for 10 min in 200 mg/L of MS222 (Sigma) and injected i.p. with a mixture of 100 L of 10 mg/mL of HEL in 0.67×PBS, emulsified with 100 L of FCA (Pierce), per animal. On days 36, 69, and 91 post immunization, 3 of the animals were boosted i.p. with the same antigen dose in FCA, and 2 lamprey were boosted i.v. via the tail vain, with 1 mg of HEL in 300 L of 0.67×PBS. Before immunization and boosting, a 0.5-mL blood sample was individually drawn from the tail vain into a syringe filled with 0.5 mL of anticoagulant PBS (0.57×PBS and 30 mM EDTA). On day 112, the lamprey were euthanized by immersion in 5 g/L of MS222 for 10 min, after which their blood was collected and diluted with an equal volume of anticoagulant PBS. There were 1-3×10⁶ lymphocytes per mL of blood, and 5-8 mL of blood was collected per animal. Buffy coat leukocytes were collected by 5 min of centrifugation at 50×g, and the plasma was separated from leukocytes by a 5-min spin at 300×g. Leukocytes were saved for RNA extraction, and the plasma was tested in ELISA with an anti-VLRB mAb (29). Anti-HEL VLRB reactivity was strong in the plasma of 1 of the 2 surviving animals that were boosted with antigen in FCA; the other plasma showed weak signals. No response was detected in plasma from the i.v.-boosted lamprey.

Lamprey larvae, 10-15 cm long, were purchased from Lamprey Services. Sedated larvae were immunized by i.p. injections of 100 g of antigen in 75 L of 0.67×PBS containing 10⁷ E. coli BL21 cells (Novagen) heat-killed by a 10-min exposure to 65° C. Immunizations of 5-10 larvae with HEL, 13-gal, or 10⁷ sheep erythrocytes (Colorado Serum) were repeated 4 times at biweekly intervals. After 9-10 weeks, the animals were euthanized, their tails were severed, and blood was collected and treated as for the adults. There were 1-3×10⁶ lymphocytes per mL of larval blood, and about 0.25 mL of blood was collected per animal. All animal procedures were approved by the University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute's Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

pYSD2 Vector: Plasmid pYSD2 (FIG. 4A) was constructed on the backbone of pPICZ-a (Invitrogen). The NcoI+BmgBI Zeocin gene was replaced with kanamycin, PCR amplified from pET24b (Novagen) using Expand High Fidelity (Roche). The GAL1 promoter region (positions 361-816 in gb K02115.1) was amplified from plasmid pCTCON2 (from K.D.W.) and inserted instead of the AOX1 promoter. Oligonucleotides encoding the Flo1p leader peptide and Flo1p C terminus amplified from yeast DNA (positions 1497-1574 (SEQ ID NO.: 6) and 4756-6114 (SEQ ID NO.: 7) in gb EF670005.1, (SEQ ID NO.: 8) (nucleotide)) were assembled with a spacer containing 2 different SfiI sites, for directional cloning of VLR, and an HA tag. The BspHI CEN6/ARS4 insert from pCTCON2 was then cloned into the PciI site. A cassette for intraplasmid homologous recombination, consisting of two 49-bp direct repeats separated by a linker with the PmeI restriction site, was generated from oligonucleotides and cloned into the BspHI site.

YSD Library Construction. Lymphocyte RNA was extracted with TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen), and mRNA was selected with Dynabeads (Dynal Biotech). First-strand cDNA synthesis was primed with random hexamers (SuperScript III; Invitrogen). VLRs were PCR-amplified from lymphocyte cDNA or genomic DNA extracted from whole larvae or livers of adults, using primers that anneal near the first and last residues of LRRNT and LRRCT, respectively: VLRA.F 5-aaaaaaggccaccggggccAAAACGTGTGAAACGGTC (SEQ ID NO.: 9); VLRA.R 5-aaaaaaggccccagaggccccCTCCACGAATGGGCACT (SEQ ID NO.: 10); VLRB.F aaaaaaggccaccggggccGCATGTCCCTCGCAGTGT (SEQ ID NO.: 11); and VLRB. R aaaaaaggccccagaggccccTGGGCATTTCGAGGGGCT (SEQ ID NO.: 12). These primers carry overhangs with unique SfiI sites (italicized). The SfiI-digested library and pYSD2 were ligated at an insert-to vector molar ratio of 5:1 overnight at 16° C. Then 10 ng of the ligated library was amplified in a 10-L reaction of TempliPhi 100 (GE Healthcare) for 4 h at 30° C. The reaction volume was increased to 400 L, including 100 pmol of primers HR.F 5-AAACGGAATTAACCCTCCACT (SEQ ID NO.: 13) and HR.R 5-AAACCGGCGTAGAGGATGCA (SEQ ID NO.: 14) (FIG. 4A), 16 L of dNTPs (25 mM; Roche), 8 L of BSA (10 mg/mL; New England Biolabs), 4 L of pyrophosphatase (100 units/mL; New England Biolabs), buffer, and 8 L of phi29 DNA polymerase (10 units/L; New England Biolabs). After 16 h at 30° C., 100 pmol of primers HR.F and HR.R were again added, along with 6 L of PmeI restriction enzyme (10 units/L; New England Biolabs). The reaction was incubated for 3 h at 30° C., for 1 h at 37° C., and then for 20 min at 65° C. The amplified DNA was purified (QIAquick PCR; Qiagen), yielding 10-20 g of the linearized library.

The libraries were used to transform yeast strain BJ5464 (ATCC 208288) using LiAc (DSY Yeast Transformation Kit; Dualsystems Biotech), yielding 5-50×10⁶ individual clones, which is the typical library size dictated by yeast transformation efficiency (15). Transformed libraries and individual clones were cultured at 30° C. in YPD (2% Bacto Peptone, 1% Bacto Yeast Extract, and 2% glucose; BD Biosciences) with 100 g/mL of G418 (American Bioanalytical). The YPD agar plates included 300 g/mL of G418. For YSD, cultures in YPD supplemented with 100 g/mL of G418 were grown to OD600=2-4, diluted to OD600=0.1 in YPG (2% Bacto Peptone, 1% Bacto Yeast Extract, 0.1% glucose, and 2% galactose) and cultured to OD600=2-4.

Sequence Analysis: Sequences of individual clones in pYSD2 were determined from plasmids transformed into E. coli. MEGA 3.1 was used for nucleotide sequence analysis and generation of the neighbor-joining tree (23). Corresponding VLRA genomic cassettes (GenBank accession numbers EF528588-EF529434) were tiled to the transcripts as reported previously (30).

pSCS Vector for Yeast-Secreted VLR: The pSCS plasmid was constructed on the backbone of pYSD2. The yeast 2 origin of replication, a BspHI fragment from pESC-TRP (Stratagene), was cloned into the PciI site instead of CEN6/ARS4. In pSCS2-a (5.1 kb), the AMF leader and prepro from pRS314-alphapp D1.3-cmyc (from K.D.W.) replaced the Flo1p leader. Downstream from the SfiI cloning sites, the following tags were added: FLAG, 6-His, c-myc, and Avi, the 14-residue synthetic substrate of E. coli BirA biotin ligase (29). For in vivo biotinylation of secreted VLR, BirA was coexpressed with the VLR in vector pSCS3-a (7 kb). BirA was PCR amplified from E. coli DNA, and the BirA 5′ end was fused to the AGA2 leader from pCTCON2. At the 3′ end, BirA was fused to the golgi-localization KEX2 C terminus (positions 2297-2614 in gb M22870.1), amplified from yeast DNA, essentially as described previously (30). In pSCS3-a, the ADH1 terminator, MCS1, and GAL10/GAL1 dual promoter were amplified from pESC-TRP, replacing the GAL1 promoter in pSCS2-a. The chimeric AGA2-BirA-KEX2 was cloned into EcoRI+SacI in MCS1 under the GAL10 promoter and VLR expression was under the GAL1 promoter.

Yeast strain YVH10, transformed using the YEAST-1 transformation kit (Sigma), was used for VLR secretion. Colonies were cultured for 72 h at 30° C. in BYPDG, pH 6.7 (2% Bacto Peptone, 1% Bacto Yeast Extract, 44 mM Na2HPO4˜7H2O, 56 mM NaH2PO4, 2% glucose, 2% galactose, and 100 g/mL G418), with 2% galactose added daily. The BYPDG also included 0.05% of detergent, either Tween 20 (USB) or n-octyl-J3-D-glucopyranoside (Sigma). For Ni-NTA agarose (Qiagen) purification, 5 N NaOH was added to reach pH 8, and NaCl to 0.3 M. Typical IMAC yields of VLR expressed in pSCS2-a were 10-50 mg/L, and 2-10 mg/L biotinylated VLR from pSCS3-a.

YSD Library Screening: Libraries were enriched for antigen-binding clones by 1 or 2 rounds of MACS using 0.5-1 μM biotinylated antigen, antibiotin microbeads, and a MiniMACS separation unit (Miltenyi). The wash buffer consisted of PBS, 0.5% BSA, 2 mM EDTA, and 0.1% Tween 20. Propagated MACS output cells were enriched by 1-3 rounds of FACS, labeled with 2-500 nM biotinylated antigen and 100 ng/mL of rat anti-HA (clone 3F10; Roche). The cells were rotated for 25 min at room temperature and then placed on ice for 5 min. Cells were washed 3 times and incubated with 1:200 dilutions of Alexa Fluor-488 donkey anti-rat IgG (Invitrogen) and SAPE (Invitrogen) for 20 min on ice. Cells were then washed 3 times with PBS and 0.1% BSA, and then sorted using a FACSort equipped with a cell concentration module (BD Biosciences).

VLRB In Vitro Mutagenesis: The VLRB.HEL.2D amplicon at 15 ng/μL was diluted 7,000-fold, and 1 μL was used as a template for PCR using a GeneMorph II kit (Stratagene). Average residue substitutions were determined from 16 mutagenized clones. To swap the LRRCT loop region, the VLRB 5′ region, from LRRNT to CP, was amplified with primers LRRNTS.F 5-GCATGTCCCTCGCA (SEQ ID NO.: 15) and CP.R 5-CAGTCCCAGGGGTT (SEQ ID NO.: 16). The hypervariable loop region (112-148 bp) was amplified from pooled VLRB amplicons using primers CP.F 5-AACCCCTGGGACTG (SEQ ID NO.: 17) and 3LRRCT.R 5-GGACGGGGGTATTG (SEQ ID NO.: 18) (FIG. 6C). The resulting amplicons were assembled by overlap extension PCR using primers LRRNT.F 5-GCATGTCCCTCGCAGTGTTC (SEQ ID NO.: 19) and LRRCT.R 5-TGGGCATTTCGAGGGGCTAGTGCTGGCCTCGGTGACCGCACGGACGGGGGTAT TG (SEQ ID NO.: 20). The resulting amplicons were amplified with primers VLRB.F+VLRB.R and cloned in pYSD2.

Equilibrium Dissociation Constants: YSD antigen titrations of VLRs were preformed as described previously (18). Triplicate aliquots of 10⁵ yeast cells were labeled with antigen concentrations ranging from 10-fold above to 10-fold below the dissociation constant. Equilibrium dissociation constants were obtained by plotting total mean fluorescence (PE channel) against antigen concentration, using nonlinear least squares to fit the curve. A BIAcore T100 biosensor (GE Healthcare) was used for affinity analysis of VLR-ligand interactions. Secreted biotinylated VLRs were desalted (HiTrap column; GE Healthcare) and captured onto NeutrAvidin (Pierce) amine-coupled to a CM5 chip (GE Healthcare). Analytes were injected at 40 μL/min in FIBS-EP buffer (GE Healthcare). Immobilized VLRs were regenerated by injection of 10 mM glycine-HCl (pH 2) and 0.005% Tween at 10 μL/min for 20 s. SPR data were fitted to a predefined 1:1 kinetic binding model to obtain the on and off rates.

For ITC measurements, VLRs were cloned in pT7-7 (Novagen), and expressed as inclusion bodies in Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RIL (Stratagene). Induced bacteria were sonicated in 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 0.1 M NaCl, and 2 mM EDTA. Inclusion bodies were washed with 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 0.1 M NaCl, and 0.5% (vol/vol) Triton X-100, then solubilized in 8 M urea and 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5). Proteins were diluted to 10 mg/L with 0.8 M arginine, 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5), 2 mM EDTA, 3 mM reduced glutathione, and 0.3 mM oxidized glutathione. After 3 days at 4° C., folding mixtures were concentrated, dialyzed against 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.5), and applied to a MonoQ column (GE Healthcare). A Superdex 75 HR column (GE Healthcare) was used for purification. ITC measurements were carried out at 25° C. in a MicroCal VP-ITC unit (GE Healthcare). Purified VLRs and HEL were dialyzed against 5 mM phosphate (pH 7.2), 136 mM NaCl, and 4 mM KCl. Typically, 3-μL aliquots of 0.638-3.95 mM HEL were injected from a 250-μL syringe rotating at 290 rpm into the sample cell containing 1.37 mL of 0.025-0.060 mM VLR solution. Corrections for buffer dilution were subtracted from the binding data. K_(D) values were calculated by nonlinear least squares fits of ITC data for a single-site binding model. Data were acquired and analyzed using ORIGIN software.

Results and Discussion

To test the novel vector, a VLR library in pYSD2 of 8×10⁶ individual colons was generated from HEL-immunized larvae. The library was screened using 500 nM HEL, and among several unique clones VLRB.2D was identified. (FIGS. 2B and C).

The novel vector was used to determine whether YSD could be used to select affinity matured mutants of the HEL-binding clone VLRB.2D (K_(D)=20 uM by SPR). In vitro random mutagenesis was performed on the wild-type VLRB.2D using the GeneMorph II kit (Stratagene). Sequences of 16 clones of the mutagenized amplicon revealed an average of 2.8 amino acid substitutions along the 168-residue diversity region. Then a YSD library of 2×10⁶ individual clones was constructed and selected high affinity HEL binders, with one round of sorting at 50 nM HEL and then one at 10 nM HEL. Of six unique sequence clones, five showed increased affinity for HEL compared with the original VLRB.2D clone (FIG. 2C). Interestingly, all five clones had one or two substitutions in the LRRCT (FIG. 2D), indicating a possible role for this module in antigen recognition. As measured by SPR, one of these clones (2DMut.12) bound HEL with K_(D)=1.5 uM (FIG. 3B), corresponding to a 13-fold improvement over wild-type. Hence, even one round of in vitro mutagenesis of VLRs can clearly enhance ligand affinity. Based on these results, it is highly likely that additional rounds of mutagenesis, using 2DMut.12 as the starting template, will yield HEL binders with K_(D)s in the nanomolar range.

Next it was questioned whether VLRs recognizing ligands other than HEL could be isolated by YSD. Of special interest would be a ligand against which the lamprey had not been previously immunized, since a positive result would obviate the need for immunization. Accordingly, a VLR YSD library was generated of 3×10⁷ clones from an HEL-immunized adult lamprey, and this library screened for binding to R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) as an arbitrary ligand. R-PE is one of the components of the light-harvesting antenna system in algae, whose crystal structure has been resolved (39, 33). Remarkably, a high affinity clone was isolated using 20 nM R-PE for labeling, which can efficiently bind as low as 200 pM R-PE (FIG. 2E). Since photosynthetic algae are not known as pathogens, it was estimated that R-PE binders may originate from the naïve VLR repertoire of this animal. VLRs from immunized or naïve lamprey can thus be a rich source for moderate to high affinity antigen binders, which can be subjected to in vitro affinity maturation in order to produce highly valuable biotechnology products.

Thus, it is now possible to produce recombinant VLRs that can bind a broad array of chemically and structurally diverse ligands with high affinity and specificity. Lamprey can be immunized against most, if not all, antigens, following biweekly or monthly intraperitoneal challenges for 8-16 weeks (FIGS. 2A and 5). It is also conceivable, as suggested by our isolation of R-PE binders (FIG. 2E), that the naïve VLR repertoire is sufficiently diverse to include at least micromolar affinity binders for most ligands. For example, single-chain antibody fragments with K_(D)s in the low micromolar or high nanomolar range, affinities comparable to those obtained by hybridoma techniques, can be enriched for most antigens by phage display or YSD (18, 41).

Immune Response to Soluble Antigens: To study the role of VLRB in lamprey immunity, an adult and larvae was immunized to hen egg lysozyme (HEL), a soluble monovalent antigen commonly used to study the antigen-binding properties of jawed vertebrate Ig-based antibodies (13, 14). For strong and persistent stimulation of lamprey immune responses, a Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) or heat-killed bacteria was used. Within 2-4 months, high-titer anti-HEL VLRB responses were evident in plasma from the immunized animals (FIG. 2A); larvae immunized with β-galactosidase (β-gal) responded similarly. These data provide bona fide evidence of the adaptive immune responses of lamprey against soluble antigens. Interestingly, ELISA assays with plasma VLRB from HEL-immunized lamprey showed strong reactivity only when HEL was coated onto the ELISA plate, likely due to avidity, but only weak signals when immobilized VLRB was reacted with soluble HEL. This further indicates that native multimeric VLRBs are high-avidity receptors that may have evolved to opsonize and neutralize invading pathogens akin to IgM antibodies (8, 11).

VLR Yeast Surface Display Platform: To access the lamprey VLR repertoire, the novel YSD vector of the present invention was constructed for high-sensitivity screening of large VLR libraries for specific ligand-binding clones (FIGS. 4A and 5A). The display of recombinant proteins on the surface of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was developed as a high-throughput eukaryotic platform that features oxidative protein-folding machinery, glycosylation, and an efficient secretory pathway (15). The initial experiments indicated that VLR diversity regions could be displayed C-terminally anchored on the yeast surface, with the N-termini free. In the pYSD2 vector, VLRs were fused to residues 1086-1537 from yeast flocculation protein Flo1p, which has a stalk-like structure and a C-terminal GPI cell surface anchorage motif (16) that can be used to display recombinant proteins on the surface of yeast (17). The N-terminally displayed VLRs were separated from the Flo1p anchor by a spacer that encoded a hemagglutinin (HA) tag, which served to quantify the level of surface VLR via Alexa 488-conjugated antibodies, using a fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACSort; BD Biosciences). Test ligands were biotinylated, and those bound by yeast were detected by R-phycoerythrin (RPE)-conjugated streptavidin (SAPE). The VLR-antigen complexes appear as double-positive cells in the upper-right quadrants of the dot plots (FIG. 5B).

VLR diversity regions were expressed on the surface of yeast as monomers at 2.5-10×10³ copies per cell, as determined by FACS with reference beads (QuantiBRITE PE; BD Biosciences). Although the surface density of Flo1p fusions is lower than the density of 1-10×10⁴ Aga2p fusions in the traditional YSD system (15), as shown below, libraries displaying VLR-Flo1p fusions can be efficiently screened for binders of both monovalent and polyvalent antigens. This indicates sufficient proximity of VLRs on the yeast surface to allow for cooperative binding of multivalent antigens by several VLRs, creating an avidity effect.

Monoclonal VLRB: VLRB YSD libraries were constructed from lymphocyte cDNA of HEL-immunized larvae (8×10⁶ clones) and adults (6×10⁷ clones) and screened both libraries for HEL binders (FIG. 5B). An initial enrichment by magnetic-activated cell sorting (MiniMACS; Miltenyi), with biotin-HEL and antibiotin magnetic beads, was followed by 2 successive rounds of FACS, with 5- to 7-fold enrichment of the double-positive population per round. Three clones from the larval library—VLRB.HEL.1, VLRB.HEL.2D, and VLRB.HEL.21—were selected for further analysis; all bound HEL with affinities in the range of 455-117 nM, as shown below in Table 1:

TABLE 1 VLR affinity measured by YSD antigen titration, ITC, and SPR YSD K_(D) ± SE, ITC K_(D) ± E, SPR K_(D) ± SE, Clone nM nM* nM VLRB.HEL.2D 659 ± 42  427 ± 36  455 ± 1  VLRB.2DMut.12 6.9 ± 0.2 28 ± 2   4.3 ± 0.13 VLRB.2DMut.13 ND 34 ± 3  55.1 ± 6.8  VLRB.2DMut.15 ND 8 ± 1 20.2 ± 2.1  VLRB.HEL.1 ND 602 ± 58  155 ± 19  VLRB.CTMut.5 ND ND 0.119 ± 0.005 VLRB.HEL.21 ND 685 ± 41  117 ± 18  VLRB.Bg.1 0.03 ± 0.01 ND 0.0034 ± 0.0011 VLRA.R2.1 0.42 ± 0.01 7 ± 1 0.182 ± 0.016 VLRA.R2.6 5.6 ± 0.7 16 ± 2  1.73 ± 0.15 VLRA.R3.1 17.6 ± 2.3  129 ± 12  10.2 ± 1.0  VLRA.R4.9 20.1 ± 2.6  ND 8.38 ± 0.49 VLRA.R5.1 0.267 ± 0.015 3.5 ± 0.6 0.124 ± 0.08  SE, standard error of triplicate samples; E, uncertainties of fit; ND, not determined. *For all ITC measurements, molar stoichiometries (n values) ranged from 0.94 to 1.14.

The affinity of VLRs for their cognate ligands was calculated from antigen titration curves produced by 3 methods. Flow cytometry measurements of the mean fluorescence were used of surface-displayed VLR in a complex with SAPE-biotin-antigen, along with surface plasmon resonance (SPR), to measure the affinities of yeast-secreted biotinylated VLR immobilized onto NeutrAvidin-coated chips. Also affinity was measured by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) using VLRs that were refolded in vitro from bacterial inclusion bodies. The most convenient method was antigen titration in the YSD format, which produces dissociation constants (K_(D)) in the same range as SPR (15, 18), whereas ITC becomes progressively less precise in the low and subnanomolar range, as discussed previously (19). Thus, clones were ranked based on YSD antigen titrations, and then calculated dissociation constants for selected clones using all 3 methods as shown in Table 1.

VLR affinity measured by YSD antigen titration, ITC, and SPR: To isolate binders of a broader range of antigens, a composite VLRB YSD library (4.5×10⁷ clones) was constructed from lymphocyte cDNA of approximately 100 lamprey, including animals immunized with β-gal and sheep erythrocytes, and from genomic DNA of 16 lamprey extracted from whole larvae and leukocyte-rich adult livers. The composite and HEL-immunized adult libraries were screened for binders of several multivalent antigens: β-gal (460-kDa tetramer), cholera toxin subunit B (CTB; 57-kDa pentamer), RPE (240-kDa multimer), and blood group trisaccharides A and B (≈30 kDa with 10-12 trisaccharides). The HEL-immunized adult was considered naïve with respect to all of these antigens, whereas the composite library was considered nonimmune with respect to CTB and RPE. Binders were isolated from both libraries, regardless of whether they originated from antigen-stimulated or naïve lamprey (FIG. 5C, Table 2). A high-avidity anti-β-gal VLRB was cloned from the composite library (K_(D)=3.4 pM by SPR) and an anti-RPE VLRB from the adult library (K_(D)=1.2 nM by YSD), with affinities characteristic of Ig-based single-chain antibodies isolated from immune libraries (20). Other VLRB clones bound antigens with affinities ranging from low micromolar to high nanomolar, similar to the affinities of Ig-based antibodies isolated from naïve libraries. Of the 7 trisaccharide binders that were characterized, 6 clones had 1.6- to 4.3-fold higher affinity for B-trisaccharide than for A-trisaccharide, which differs from B-trisaccharide only in the C3 saccharide, an N-acetylgalactosamine instead of galactose. To further test the ligand specificity of these carbohydrate-binding VLRB clones, antigen titration assays were conducted for trisaccharides A or B in the presence of 10-fold excess H-trisaccharide, the basic O-antigen that lacks a C3-linked saccharide. H-trisaccharide did not inhibit binding of the cognate ligands, indicating the high specificity of these clones, as shown below with results set forth in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Antigen specificity of VLRB clones Immune library, Affinity by YSD, Antigen Number of clones yes/no nM HEL 4 Yes 400-700 B-trisaccharide 4 Yes  10-400 A/B-trisaccharide 1 No 110 B-trisaccharide 2 No 50, 900 CTB 3 No   800-10,000 β-galactosidase 1 Yes 0.03 β-galactosidase 1 No 300 R-phycoerythrin 1 No 1.17

Affinity Maturation In Vitro: For biomedical applications, the affinity of Ig-based antibodies for their ligands can be improved by in vitro mutagenesis, a process resembling in vivo affinity maturation by somatic hypermutation in jawed vertebrates (20). However, no such data are available for any member of the LRR protein superfamily. Because no high-affinity anti-HEL VLRB could be isolated directly from the prepared libraries, the feasibility of improving the affinity of VLRB.HEL.2D was considered because it was the clone with the lowest affinity among the anti-HEL VLRB clones (K_(D)=455 nM; Table 1 SPR). Error-prone PCR was used to introduce an average of 2.8 residue substitutions along the 167-codon diversity region of VLRB.HEL.2D, and constructed a mutant YSD library (2×10⁶ clones). The best HEL binders from this library were enriched by 2 FACS rounds, resulting in 5 unique clones (FIG. 6A) with improved affinity for HEL compared with wild-type VLRB.HEL.2D (K_(D)=55-4.3 nM; Table 1 SPR), which for clone VLRB.2DMut.12 represented a 100-fold improvement.

Interestingly, all of these VLRB.HEL.2D mutants had 1 or 2 substitutions in the hypervariable loop region of LRRCT, a distinctive insert following the α-helix of this LRR module that is uniquely shared by the lamprey and hagfish VLRs and the von Willebrand factor receptor GpIbα (6). Thus the hypervariable loop can contribute to antigen binding as recently validated by the crystal structure of VLRB.HEL.2D bound to HEL (21). The LRRCT loop plays a major role in this complex, where it penetrates deep into the active site cleft of the enzyme. Analysis of 517 unique VLRB sequences revealed 115 unique LRRCT loop peptides (22%); thus, it was attempted to improve affinities of VLRB clones by swapping the LRRCT loop region with corresponding PCR amplicons from a large pool of VLRB cDNA. Simultaneously, the LRRCT loop in 4 wild-type HEL-binding clones was swapped and a mutant YSD library (2×10⁷ clones) was constructed and then enriched it for improved binders by 2 rounds of MACS and 1 round of FACS (FIG. 6B). One of the resulting isolates was VLRB.CTMut.5, a clone derived from VLRB.HEL.1 with 6 residue substitutions in the LRRCT module, 3 of which were in the loop region (FIG. 6C). There were also 5 substitutions in the LRRNT-LRR1 region, which were derived from clone VLRB.HEL.2D, apparently by recombinational domain swapping during one of the overlap extension PCR reactions. Remarkably, the affinity of clone VLRB.CTMut.5 improved 1,300-fold, from 155 nM to 119 pM, during a single cycle of in vitro affinity maturation (FIG. 6D; Table 1 SPR), whereas 4 cycles of mutagenesis and enrichment were required for an 1,800-fold improvement of the best reported affinity-matured antifluorescein antibody (22). This indicates that a small number of residue substitutions can readily convert low-affinity monomeric VLRB into high-affinity antibodies comparable to the highest-affinity IgG.

Monoclonal VLRA: The lamprey VLRA was discovered only recently (6), and no information on its antigen-binding properties is available. To access the VLRA repertoire, a VLRA YSD library was constructed from the HEL-immunized adult lamprey (5×10⁷ clones) and screened it for HEL binders. After 2 MACS rounds, a heterogeneous cell population stained brightly with HEL at 20 nM (FIG. 7A). Of the 50 clones analyzed, 14 had unique nucleotide sequences, 13 of which encoded unique proteins (FIG. 7B). Interestingly, these 13 VLRA clones differed at only 22 out of 732 nucleotide positions, which affected 15 variable codon positions along the 244-residue diversity region. The 1.46-fold overabundance in nonsynonymous over synonymous residue substitutions may indicate that these proteins diverged under positive selection, as further suggested by the nearly 100-fold augmentation, from 26 nM to 270 pM, in ligand-binding affinity among these VLRAs (FIGS. 7 C and D). To determine whether these mature VLRA genes were mutated in the lamprey lymphocytes or whether mutations were unintentionally introduced during YSD library construction, the sequences of YSD VLRAs were compared to PCR-amplified clones from the same lymphocyte cDNA sample. The forward PCR primer was designed based on the LRRNT of VLRA.R2.1 (5-CCAAGGCAAGAGCTTGGATTC (SEQ ID NO.: 1)), and the reverse primer was based on a unique region in the LRRCT loop (5-TTCCATCTTTTACTTTGTTGGAG (SEQ ID NO.: 2)). The distribution of variable nucleotide and residue substitutions was similar among the VLRAs selected by YSD and the unselected PCR clones, indicating that these mutations occurred in the lamprey lymphocytes.

It has been previously shown that lamprey VLRs are assembled from flanking genomic LRR-encoding cassettes via a gene conversion-like process (6). The same method was used herein to search for “footprints” of gene conversion among the variant VLRA clones by tiling the corresponding portions of germline VLRA genes and genomic LRR cassettes along the mature VLRA sequences. Several potential recombination events were evident; for example, the LRRNT of clones R4.8, R3.1, R4.3, and R4.9 was identical to the germline gene portion (FIG. 7B, box 1), whereas in all other sequences, the C-terminal half of LRRNT was identical to genomic cassette 2 at all 6 variant nucleotides. In the region corresponding to cassette 3, 4 nucleotides distinguished cassette 3a from cassette 3b; clone R4.9 was identical to cassette 3a, and clone R4.8 had 3 of the 4 unique nucleotides of cassette 3a, whereas all other clones had sequences identical to cassette 3b in this region. The simultaneous substitution of clusters of codons in these mature VLRA genes (4 in LRRNT and 2 in LRR1) is consistent with a process of gene conversion between the mature VLRA gene and 1 or more of the VLRA genomic LRR cassettes. Thus, these variant VLRAs appear to be derived from a single lymphocyte progenitor, which has a mature VLRA gene most closely to the sequence of VLRA.R4.9 in our sample. Interestingly, a phylogenetic neighbor-joining tree (23) drawn for the VLRA sequences clustered all of the subnanomolar HEL-binding clones (R2.1, R5.1, R5.2, and R5.6) based on a single substitution of the hydrophobic tryptophan at position 136 to a charged hydrophilic arginine. Alignment of these VLRA sequences based on the available VLR structures revealed that residue 136 is located at a solvent-exposed position in the LRRV4 β-strand, which is part of the concave antigen-binding surface of VLRs (12, 21).

Thus, VLRA antibodies are capable of very high-affinity interactions with antigens. For instance, the best VLRA HEL-binding clone (R5.1) had a K_(D) of 124 pM, approaching the 100 pM affinity ceiling of Ig-based antibodies produced during mammalian immune responses (1, 24).

In conclusion, the powerful YSD platform described herein has allowed the exploration of the role of VLR in lamprey immunity by screening large libraries for specific antigen-binding VLR clones. After conversion to VLR display via the Flo1p leader and C-terminal Flo1p anchor, the optimized system allowed highly sensitive library screening for clones with binding affinities, or avidities, in the range of 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻¹² M. The broad spectrum of antigens that VLR can specifically recognize, including monovalent and multivalent proteins and saccharides, and the binding affinities achieved, clearly attest to the remarkable diversity of the VLR repertoire in both naïve and antigen-stimulated lamprey. This suggests that the naïve VLRB repertoire includes at least low-affinity binders of many antigens. The monomeric YSD VLRB diversity regions that were assayed actually could have been derived from native high-avidity multimeric VLRB binders of these antigens. Furthermore, the analysis of anti-HEL VLRA variants and in vitro matured VLRB clones has shown that mutations can significantly enhance the affinities of these LRR-based adaptive immune receptors. Thus, the VLR system of jawless vertebrates truly behaves like the Ig-based system of jawed vertebrates, with the potential to provide an effective humoral antipathogen shield.

VLRs also hold considerable potential as natural non-Ig antibodies for various biotechnology applications (27, 28). These highly stable modular single-chain polypeptides of relatively small size (15-25 kDa) can bind a broad range of antigenic determinants with high affinity and specificity, and can be readily engineered for improved binding properties. VLR antibodies can serve in such diagnostic applications as biosensors, bioimaging, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and ELISA, as well as in affinity purification. In addition, lamprey VLR can provide a rich source of reagents that recognize mammalian antigens invisible to Ig-based antibodies because of self-tolerance.

REFERENCES

The contents of all references cited herein are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

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That which is claimed is:
 1. A Yeast Surface Display (YSD) vector for expression of a variable lymphocyte receptor (VLR) protein positioned on the surface of a yeast cell comprising: a nucleotide sequence encoding for the VLR protein, wherein the VLR protein was formed in response to an antigen and having affinity for the antigen; nucleotide sequences encoding a leader and C-terminal segment of yeast flocculation protein Flo1p, wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding for the VLR protein is positioned therebetween; and a homologous recombination cassette consisting of two same number of base-pair direct repeats separated by a linker wherein the linker comprises a restriction site for plasmid linearization.
 2. The YSD of claim 1, further comprising the inclusion of a geneticin/kanamycin resistance gene.
 3. The YSD of claim 1, wherein the two base-pair direct repeats consists of 49 base-pairs.
 4. The YSD of claim 1, wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding the leader and C-terminal of yeast flocculation protein Flo1p is SEQ ID NOs.: 6 and 7, respectively.
 5. The YSD of claim 1, wherein the yeast is a strain of Saccharomyce cerevisiae.
 6. A method for providing a high-throughput platform for selection of recombinant antigen-binding VLR proteins, the system comprising: a) providing yeast strains of Saccharomyce cerevisiae and b) transfecting the yeast with the YSD vector of claim 1; and c) culturing the yeast for expression and displaying of the VLR proteins on the surface of the yeast.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the culturing of the yeast further comprising the use of a growth medium that includes yeast peptone and sugar.
 8. The method of claim 6, further comprising the inclusion of a geneticin/kanamycin resistance gene.
 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding the leader and C-terminal of yeast flocculation protein Flo1p is SEQ ID NOs.: 6 and 7, respectively.
 10. A method of producing VLR proteins having high affinity for an antigen of choice, the method comprising: a) immunizing a Lamprey with the antigen and collecting plasma containing the VLR proteins formed in response to the antigen; b) determining nucleotide sequence encoding such VLR proteins; c) preparing the YSD vector of claim 1: d) transfecting a yeast strain; e) culturing the yeast for expression and displaying of the VLR proteins on the surface of the yeast; and f) measuring the binding affinity.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the culturing of the yeast further comprising the use of a growth medium that includes yeast peptone and sugar.
 12. The method of claim 10, further comprising the inclusion of a geneticin/kanamycin resistance gene.
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding the leader and C-terminal of yeast flocculation protein Flo1p is SEQ ID NOs.: 6 and 7, respectively.
 14. The method of claim 10, further comprising subjecting the nucleotide sequence encoding for the VLR protein to mutagenesis and repeat steps (c) to (f) until affinity increases for antigen of choice.
 15. The YSD vector of claim 1, wherein the nucleotide sequence encoding the VLR protein comprises nucleotide sequence encoding for the stalk C-terminal of the VLP protein. 